Experts who participated in the project were required to have in-depth knowledge and a minimum of 5 years experience, in their respective fields. They identified the following top 10 risks as emerging:

Lack of physical activity (MV=4.57): Prolonged periods of static sitting or standing as well as non-neutral trunk positions can be found in occupations such as call centre agents, crane operators, and truck drivers. This can lead to high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and musculoskeletal disorders.

Combined exposure to vibration and awkward postures (MV=4.56): Symptoms of vibroacoustic diseases are caused by long-term exposure to hand-arm vibration and noise. These conditions are exacerbated by poor ergonomic design of equipment, which results in musculoskeletal disorders.  

Poor awareness of thermal risks among low income workers (MV=4.50): High-risk groups such as illegal workers in the agriculture and construction sectors, who lack adequate health and safety knowledge, are often exposed to thermal discomfort in either hot or cold environments, which negatively impacts performance and wellbeing.

A combination of musculoskeletal and psychosocial risk factors (MV=4.43): Healthcare, cashiers, VDU and call centre workers are primarily affected. Musculoskeletal risk refers to stress caused by poor ergonomic design of work stations and equipment that is not designed correctly for the physiology of workers. In this context, psychosocial risk factors are a good example of the Job Demand Control theory, since “the combination of low decision latitude and heavy job demands is associated with mental strain” (Karasek, 1979, p1).

Additionally, Siegrist’s Effort Reward Imbalance model is fitting, which emphasises reward rather than control, whereby an equilibrium must be struck between the costs invested by the individual and the gains received, since “all major contracts in social life, including the work contract, are based on the principle of reciprocity” (Siegrist, 2002, p1).

Multi-factorial risks (MV=4.42): Call centre agents can experience heightened levels of stress when exposed to multiple factors such as maintaining static positions for long periods, inadequate acoustics and headsets, background noise, inferior lighting, poor work station designs, low job control, and high emotional demands.

Thermal discomfort (MV=4.40): Primarily in industrial environments, this affects the overall performance, health, and wellbeing of workers who do not have adequate protection against the extremes of the weather.

Vibration and muscular work (MV=4.38): Constant exposure to vibration can cause work-related injuries and cumulative trauma disorders, such as carpal tunnel.

Human – machine interfaces leading to emotional strain (MV=4.35): Particularly in the air industry and healthcare sectors, the handling of computer-aided devices poses considerable risks because of the interfaces’ poor ergonomic design. This leads to mental and emotional strain and a higher probability of accidents and errors. ‘Cobots’, or intelligent robots, should be adapted for the worker’s skills rather than the other way around, which is usually the case.

Inadequate protection of high risk groups against long standing ergonomic risks (MV=4.21): Low income workers exposed to poor working conditions receive inadequate training and information regarding high task repetition, forceful exertions, and awkward postures.

Increased exposure to UV radiation (MV=4.17): Outdoor workplace exposure to sun radiation can cause cataracts and numerous types of cancers. Additionally, workers who are exposed to UV-based technologies in sectors such as printing workshops, the food industry, or the health care sector, are also at risk.

Emerging Chemical Risks to the Health of the Working Population

Experts who participated in the project were required to have in-depth knowledge and a minimum of 5 years experience in their respective fields. The following 10 risks were identified by them:

Nanoparticles and ultra-fine particles (MV=4.6): These have been identified as one of the main priorities by expert stakeholders who were included (by EU-OSHA) in the broader consultation process.  Little research has been conducted in this area since nanoparticles have unique properties which are not consistent with conventional materials. The accumulation of these particles may cause cancers, but this is not yet proven.

Poor control of risks in SMEs (MV=4.39): Small to medium enterprises, which employ approximately 66% of workers in the private sector, often lack the resources and knowledge to implement appropriate risk controls, which results in non-compliance with the EU framework directives on chemical agents.

Outsourcing (MV=4.34): In activities such as cleaning and maintenance, outsourced low income workers often have little control over high risk work, while they are denied adequate training and knowledge in assessing hazards and managing risks.

Epoxy resins (MV=4.14): Products such as paint, adhesives, inks, and varnishes are the main cause of allergic contact dermatitis. There is an increasing demand worldwide for these products, while personal protective equipment is not being used extensively. Adequate training in the safe use of these products is insufficient.

Dangerous substances in waste treatment (MV=4.11): The processing of waste is considered one of the most dangerous occupations, as approximately 110 volatile organic compounds have been discovered at landfills, composting, and recovery plants. Workers in this industry are susceptible to illness rates 50% higher than other workers, with infectious disease rates being six times higher.

Dermal exposure (MV=4.11): The cumulative effects of dermal exposure to dangerous substances, especially epoxy resins and isocyanates, is underestimated and of particular concern for the construction sector, small- to medium-size enterprises, and self-employed people.

Diesel exhaust (MV=4.02): More research is needed in this area, however it is generally agreed that its major components are carcinogenic. Consistent exposure to the diesel exhaust of trucks in the mining industry is especially hazardous to workers.

Isocyanates (MV=4.02): These allergenic and sensitising substances can be found in construction products. Exposure occurs not only at the production stage, but also during processing such as spraying, welding, and grinding.

Man-made mineral fibres (MV=3.96): These are either siliceous or non-siliceous respirable machine-made mineral fibres which are a source of occupational exposure and defined by the HSE as “fibre which is a particle with a diameter less than or equal to 3µm, a length greater than or equal to 5µm and a length/diameter ratio greater than or equal to 3”. They can be found in materials such as fibre glass, mineral wools, and ceramic fibres. Activities such as furnace wrecking and loft insulation expose workers to these hazards (HSE, 2014, p1).

Dangerous substances in the construction sector (MV=3.96): Multiple exposure to chemical agents in this sector is not well assessed, and is very difficult to control, for example paints, carcinogenic agents, solvents, and epoxy resins. It includes activities where workers are exposed to dangerous substances in jobs such as electroplating, vulcanising, and rubber processing.

Emerging Biological Risks to the Health of the Working Population

Experts who participated in the project were required to have in-depth knowledge and a minimum of 5 years experience, in their respective fields. They identified the following top 10 risks as emerging:

Global epidemics resulting from occupational risks (MV=4.51): This risk was identified as ‘strongly emerging’ and primarily affects health care employees, drivers of public transport, aircrews, and border controls staff who are continually exposed to people, some of whom may be infected with diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and meningococcal disease. It also includes coming into close contact in confined spaces with animal livestock.

Difficult assessment of biological risks (MV=4.06): Another ‘strongly emerging’ risk is a lack of knowledge pertaining to the proper and effective assessments of biological agents, which includes identification and measurement. Consequently, this means they are not being managed safely in the workplace and are often an unintentional consequence of work activities. This area needs developing and further research.

Worker exposure to drug-resistant microorganisms (MV=3.97): Misuse of antibiotics has caused an increase in bacterial resistance in human healthcare whereby organisms develop a resistance to medication. This includes antibiotic use in livestock factory farming and animal breeding.

Lack of information on biological risks (MV=3.97): This occurs particularly in relation to exposure assessment methods and dose-effect associations. This makes risk assessments more difficult and occurs predominantly in workplace offices and the agricultural sector.

Lack of planned preventative maintenance on air conditioning and water systems (MV=3.92): Exposure to legionella bacteria poses a risk when workers are exposed to manmade water systems which are not correctly maintained.

Inadequate occupational safety and health training of local authority staff (MV=3.92): Adequate, relevant, information and training is not being provided to workers regarding the risks of being exposed to biological hazards such as sewage treatment and waste collection.

Biohazards in waste treatment plants (MV=3.89): The handling of solid waste exposes workers to pulmonary, gastrointestinal, and dermal problems because of exposure to the bioaerosols which become airborne during collection, sorting, and recycling of materials. Municipal waste which is composed of large amounts of organic material is particularly harmful.

Combine exposure to bioaerosols and chemicals (MV=3.81): A lack of knowledge still prevails regarding the effects of being exposed to more than 1 hazard, which is a common occurrence in workplaces, e.g. endotoxins, moulds in indoor workplaces, and mycotoxins. Consequently, it difficult to diagnose what is the cause of the health issues.

Endotoxins (MV=3.81): These are “toxins built of polysaccharide and phospholipid substances that are integral parts of the outer wall of bacteria” (EU-OSHA, 2007, p53) and are mainly found in workers’ environments where organic dust is prevalent, for example agriculture and forestry, textile industry, sewage, waste, and recycling, paper industry, metal industry, and food production and processing.

Moulds in indoor workplaces (MV=3.78): Exposure to mould through inhalation or dermal contact can result in various ailments such as respiratory infections and diseases, allergic reactions, nose, throat or eye irritations, and flu like symptoms. If left untreated, a sick building syndrome can manifest (EU-OSHAa, 2007).

Emerging Psychosocial Risks to the Health of the Working Population

“In 2002, the annual economic cost of work-related stress in the EU-15 was an estimated EUR 20 000 million” (EU-OSHA, 2007, p.4). This illustrates the seriousness of the problem and highlights the importance of the role of employers in creating working environments that are conducive for the health and wellbeing of their workers.

In order to identify and prioritise the risks, EU-OSHA invited 62 experts in the first survey round, 79 experts in the second, and 79 experts in the third round. Response rates were 45%, 27%, and 21% respectively (EU-OSHA, 2007). The following most important 10 risks were recognised and identified as closely interrelated.

Precarious contracts in unstable labour markets: MV- 4.56 / SD – 0.51. Businesses exist in rapidly changing times which requires a level of competitiveness that is unprecedented. Globalisation is forcing companies to achieve more with less, and this impacts directly on the workforce. Consequently, businesses are required to offer contracts to employees which offer little security and long-term stability, e.g. zero hours, short-term, or temporary contracts. This is defined as precarious work, which provides a low level of certainty about future prospects for the employee, minimal control over working conditions (including hours to be worked), and values such as equality, diversity, and inclusion not being considered in terms of the worker’s wellbeing (EU-OSHA, 2007).

Impact of globalisation: MV – 4.38 / SD – 0.72. The growth of globalisation exacerbates workforce inequalities as companies come under pressure to compete with multi-national corporations that have the resources and capabilities to dominate the markets. Consequently, companies move abroad to countries where there are cheaper labour markets and this business model frequently exploits workers who are demographically disadvantaged (EU-OSHA, 2007).

New forms of employment contracts: MV – 4.25 / SD – 0.68. As businesses constantly seek higher profits in an extremely competitive environment, it is advantageous to utilise a business model that offers workers temporary employment contracts, zero hours contracts, and short-term contracts. This approach alleviates the financial risks of offering permanent contracts which require the provision of annual leave pay, sickness absence pay, pensions, and additional benefits for the employee.

Feeling of job insecurity: MV – 4.25 / SD – 0.68. “Job insecurity reduces psychological well-being and job satisfaction, and increases psychosomatic complaints and physical strain” (Witte, 1999, p.1). Some of the causes of insecurity have been identified by EU-OSHA (2007), for example; globalisation, unstable labour markets, outsourcing, and lean production. These factors lead to employees feeling they have little control and independence over prospects, and this is a prominent cause of stress and illness.

Ageing workforce: MV – 4.19 / SD – 0.54. In this demographic, some abilities decline, such as physical strength, while others increase, for example experience and sense of responsibility. This paradox is further illustrated by Silverstein (2008, p.1): “In some ways, these workers will be our most skilled and productive employees but in others the most vulnerable.” As ageing workers continue to pursue a higher retirement age, they become more vulnerable to poor working conditions, while employers are more likely to exploit them compared to younger workers. Additionally, they are less likely to be given lifelong learning opportunities, which is likely to negatively affect their health and increase the likelihood of work-related accidents (EU-OSHA, 2007).

Long working hours: MV – 4.13 / SD – 0.62. Higher demands are being placed upon workers by employers that are driven by rising costs in highly competitive environments. Workers who feel apprehensive and insecure about future employment prospects are choosing to work longer hours without adequate compensation, in the hope that their loyalty will be looked upon favourably by the employer. Additionally, workers are given higher workloads without adequate support and sufficient resources. New technologies have also given rise to employees working longer hours, often in isolation and the experts consulted on this project agree that this can lead to genuine work overload. This is not sustainable and will eventually negatively impact the worker’s health and psychological wellbeing (EU-OSHA, 2007).

Work intensification: MV – 4.07 / SD – 1.03. “According to the European Working Conditions Survey (2000), the higher the pace constraints, the more probably is workers’ perception that their health is threatened” (EU-OSHA, 2007, p61). Work intensification can be linked to various factors, but researchers have been unable to reach a definitive conclusion on the chain of causalities. However, it is agreed that a more efficient and effective use of time has become the primary objective in shaping the way employees work, for example having to work faster but with less control. Technological developments have resulted in just-in-time production, where workers’ errors or delays can lead to high costs. Utilising computers to develop monitoring and evaluation measures ensures that the worker’s performance is perpetually scrutinised (EU-OSHA, 2007).

Lean production and outsourcing: MV – 4.06 / SD – 0.68. Landsbergis, Cahill, and Schnall (1999) found that the effects of lean production on workers’ health have suggested high levels of stress, fatigue, and tension, which is because of highly repetitive work and having to work faster for longer periods. Outsourcing leads to job elimination which has a negative effect on the worker’s morale and sense of self-worth, while “studies indicate the relationship between job insecurity, stress, and poorer mental health” (EU-OSHA, 2007, p53).

High emotional demands at work: MV – 4.00 / SD – 0.52. Within the context of the EU-OSHA (2007) report, because this topic covers such a wide range of factors, the experts decided to focus on bullying and harassment, which is more prevalent in the healthcare and service sectors. Workers often tend not to disclose their emotional trauma for fear of losing their jobs, which is a source of considerable stress. There are far reaching consequences for workers that are treated in this way, for example sleep disorders, irritable bowel syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder, and musculoskeletal disorders (EU-OSHA, 2007).

Poor work-life balance: MV – 4.00 / SD – 0.73: Irregular and non-standard working hours prevents a clear distinction between working and private lives. Adverse effects may include unhealthy eating, failure to establish a balanced daily routine, and poor sleeping habits (EU-OSHA, 2007).